The Nahuatl nouns compounded into the proper name "Quetzalcoatl" are: Nicholson 2001, Carrasco 1982, Gillespie 1989, Florescano 2002, Lafaye 1987, Townsend 2003, MartÃnez 1980, Phelan 1970, (in English, Spanish, and Nahuatl languages), Learn how and when to remove this template message, Proposed Book of Mormon geographical setting, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Fate/Grand Order - Absolute Demonic Front: Babylonia, The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel, "Evidence of Mushroom Worship in Mesoamerica", "New Taxonomical and Ethnomycological Observations on, "Readings in Classical Nahuatl: The Death of Quetzalcoatl", "The Complete New York City Horror Movie Marathon! The god known as the Plumed Serpent is a mix of bird and rattle snake and his name is a combination of the Nahuatl words for the quetzal - the emerald plumed bird - and coatl or serpent. In the post-classic Nahua civilization of central Mexico (Aztec), the worship of Quetzalcoatl was ubiquitous. There is no question that the legend of Quetzalcoatl played a significant role in the colonial period. Tezcatlipoca (Tez-ca-tlee-POH-ka), whose name means “Smoking Mirror”, was the Aztec god of night and sorcery, as well as the patron deity of Aztec kings and young warriors. [11] That period lies within the Late Preclassic to Early Classic period (400 BC â 600 AD) of Mesoamerican chronology; veneration of the figure appears to have spread throughout Mesoamerica by the Late Classic period (600â900 AD). Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. In addition to his guise as a plumed serpent, Quetzalcóatl was often represented as a man with a beard, and, as Ehécatl, the wind god, he was shown with a mask with two protruding tubes (through which the wind blew) and a conical hat typical of the Huastec people of east-central Mexico. He never offered human victims, only snakes, birds, and butterflies. The first culture to use the symbol of a feathered serpent as an important religious and political symbol was Teotihuacan. Gelbooru has millions of free hentai and rule34, anime videos, images, wallpapers, and more! On the basis of the iconography of the feathered serpent deity at sites such as Teotihuacan, Xochicalco, Chichén Itzá, Tula and Tenochtitlan combined with certain ethnohistorical sources, historian David Carrasco has argued that the preeminent function of the feathered serpent deity throughout Mesoamerican history was the patron deity of the Urban center, a god of culture and civilization. info)), in honorific form: QuetzalcÅÄtzin) is a deity in Aztec culture and literature whose name comes from the Nahuatl language and means "Precious serpent" or "Quetzal-feathered Serpent". Quetzalcóatl ruled over the days that bore the name ehécatl (“wind”) and over the 18th 13-day series of the ritual calendar. [28][29][30][31][32] Most documents expounding this theory are of entirely Spanish origin, such as Cortés's letters to Charles V of Spain, in which Cortés goes to great pains to present the naive gullibility of the Aztecs in general as a great aid in his conquest of Mexico. Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. Caster(キャスター, Kyasutā? [42], In 1971 Tony Shearer published a book called Lord of the Dawn: Quetzalcoatl and the Tree of Life, inspiring New Age followers to visit Chichen Itza at the summer solstice when dragon-shaped shadows are cast by the Kulkulcan pyramid.[43]. Among the Aztecs, whose beliefs are the best-documented in the historical sources, Quetzalcoatl was related to gods of the wind, of the planet Venus, of the dawn, of merchants and of arts, crafts and knowledge. In the Maya area he was approximately equivalent to Kukulkan and Gukumatz, names that also roughly translate as "feathered serpent" in different Mayan languages. A 2012 exhibition at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art and the Dallas Museum of Art, "The Children of the Plumed Serpent: the Legacy of Quetzalcoatl in Ancient Mexico", demonstrated the existence of a powerful confederacy of Eastern Nahuas, Mixtecs and Zapotecs, along with the peoples they dominated throughout southern Mexico between 1200â1600 (Pohl, Fields, and Lyall 2012, Harvey 2012, Pohl 2003). This article is about a Mesoamerican deity. In the era following the 16th-century Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, a number of records conflated Quetzalcoatl with Ce Acatl Topiltzin, a ruler of the mythico-historic city of Tollan. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Who are the group of maidens who serve the god Odin? The earliest iconographic depiction of the deity is believed to be found on Stela 19 at the Olmec site of La Venta, depicting a serpent rising up behind a person probably engaged in a shamanic ritual. Elle offre des services de bibliothèque aux différents ministères et organismes du gouvernement du Québec. Colonial documentary sources from the Maya area frequently speak of the arrival of foreigners from the central Mexican plateau, often led by a man whose name translates as "Feathered Serpent". ), is one of the Four Cavalry Classes among the seven standard Servant classes summoned for the Holy Grail War. [10], The earliest known documentation of the worship of a Feathered Serpent occurs in Teotihuacan in the first century BC or first century AD. Often our current time was considered the fifth sun,[citation needed] the previous four having been destroyed by flood, fire and the like. Need to report an advertisement? With his companion Xolotl, a dog-headed god, he was said to have descended to the underground hell of Mictlan to gather the bones of the ancient dead. The image on the Cuauhxicalli Eagle Bowl, believed to be Tonatuih, the Aztec sun god. Quetzalcoatl was also the patron of the priests and the title of the twin Aztec high priests. This depiction is believed to have been made around 900 BC. No account needed, updated constantly! Quetzalcoatl guided people to prosperity as a virtuous deity, but was eventually vanquished by the god Tezcatlipoca and disappeared from Aztec. Here's how. Although he was generally listed as one of the first-rank deities, no ceremonial month was dedicated to his cult. We now have a guide to finding the best version of an image to upload. [18] Historian Enrique Florescano also analyzing Teotihuacan iconography argues that the Feathered Serpent was part of a triad of agricultural deities: the Goddess of the Cave symbolizing motherhood, reproduction and life, Tlaloc, god of rain, lightning and thunder and the feathered serpent, god of vegetational renewal. Corrections? (Many academics conclude this passage implies incest.) [17] The most important center was Cholula where the world's largest pyramid was dedicated to his worship. Over the West presides the White Tezcatlipoca, Quetzalcoatl, the god of light, justice, mercy and wind. This view has been questioned by ethno-historians who argue that the Quetzalcoatl-Cortés connection is not found in any document that was created independently of post-Conquest Spanish influence, and that there is little proof of a pre-Hispanic belief in Quetzalcoatl's return. During the epi-classic period, a dramatic spread of feathered serpent iconography is evidenced throughout Mesoamerica, and during this period begins to figure prominently at sites such as Chichén Itzá, El TajÃn, and throughout the Maya area. In Xochicalco, depictions of the feathered serpent are accompanied by the image of a seated, armed ruler and the hieroglyph for the day sign 9 Wind. Subtleties in, and an imperfect scholarly understanding of, high Nahuatl rhetorical style make the exact intent of these comments tricky to ascertain, but Restall argues that Moctezuma's politely offering his throne to Cortés (if indeed he did ever give the speech as reported) may well have been meant as the exact opposite of what it was taken to mean: politeness in Aztec culture was a way to assert dominance and show superiority. Quetzalcoatl went to Mictlan, the underworld, and created fifth-world mankind from the bones of the previous races (with the help of Cihuacoatl), using his own blood, from a wound he inflicted on his earlobes, calves, tongue, and penis, to imbue the bones with new life. The date 9 Wind is known to be associated with fertility, Venus and war among the Maya and frequently occurs in relation to Quetzalcoatl in other Mesoamerican cultures. Explore cool cascading water features and landscaping designs. ), Magus and Heroic Spirit of Spells and Sorcery(魔術師の英霊? But the history of the former has been handed down to us through an impure Lamanitish source, which has sadly disfigured and perverted the original incidents and teachings of the Savior's life and ministry. Take the quiz. Omissions? And when the wind rose, when the dust rumbled, and it crack and there was a great din, became it became dark and the wind blew in many directions, and it thundered; then it was said: "[Quetzalcoatl] is wrathful. Since the sixteenth century, it has been widely held that the Aztec Emperor Moctezuma II initially believed the landing of Hernán Cortés in 1519 to be Quetzalcoatl's return. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. [23] Quetzalcoatl was often considered the god of the morning star, and his twin brother Xolotl was the evening star (Venus). Engraving by W. Holl, 1837. by Marcelosan (CC BY-SA) Quetzalcóatl (pron. Outside of Tenochtitlán, the main centre of Quetzalcóatl’s cult was Cholula, on the plateau region called Mesa Central. In the Codex's description of the first meeting between Moctezuma and Cortés, the Aztec ruler is described as giving a prepared speech in classical oratorial Nahuatl, a speech which, as described in the codex written by the Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún and his Tlatelolcan informants, included such prostrate declarations of divine or near-divine admiration as: You have graciously come on earth, you have graciously approached your water, your high place of Mexico, you have come down to your mat, your throne, which I have briefly kept for you, I who used to keep it for you. Historians debate to what degree, or whether at all, these narratives about this legendary Toltec ruler describe historical events. Other parties have also promulgated the idea that the Mesoamericans believed the conquistadors, and in particular Cortés, to be awaited gods: most notably the historians of the Franciscan order such as Fray Gerónimo de Mendieta. Round monuments occur particularly often in Huastec territory. In a version of the myth, Quetzalcoatl was born by a virgin named Chimalman, to whom the god Onteol appeared in a dream. Among the Aztecs, the name Quetzalcoatl was also a priestly title, as the two most important priests of the Aztec Templo Mayor were called "Quetzalcoatl Tlamacazqui". [12] Feathered serpent iconography is prominent at all of these sites. Showing 113 search results for character:quetzalcoatl - just some of the 500,000+ absolutely free hentai galleries available. [need quotation to verify] Codex drawings pictured both Quetzalcoatl and Xolotl wearing an ehÄcacÅzcatl around the neck. This talisman was a conch shell cut at the cross-section and was likely worn as a necklace by religious rulers, as such objects have been discovered in burials in archaeological sites throughout Mesoamerica,[6] and potentially symbolized patterns witnessed in hurricanes, dust devils, seashells, and whirlpools, which were elemental forces that had significance in Aztec mythology. Quetzalcoatl, the Aztec god of wind, air, and learning, wears around his neck the "wind breastplate" ehÄcacÅzcatl, "the spirally voluted wind jewel" made of a conch shell. [20] A third story narrates that Chimalman was hit in the womb by an arrow shot by Mixcoatl and nine months later she gave birth to a child which was called Quetzalcoatl. Historian Matthew Restall concludes that: The legend of the returning lords, originated during the Spanish-Mexica war in Cortés' reworking of Moctezuma's welcome speech, had by the 1550s merged with the Cortés-as-Quetzalcoatl legend that the Franciscans had started spreading in the 1530s. If an image won't load for you, try this. THE LADY STOOD IN FRONT OF THE SUN: She was greater than their dreaded sun-god "Huitzilopochtli". Who is Quetzalcóatl’s dog-headed companion? One important body of myths describes Quetzalcóatl as the priest-king of Tula, the capital of the Toltecs. His sea voyage to the east should probably be connected with the invasion of Yucatán by the Itzá, a tribe that showed strong Toltec features. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. Circular temples were believed to please Ehécatl because they offered no sharp obstacles to the wind. This article was most recently revised and updated by, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quetzalcoatl, Ancient History Encyclopedia - Quetzalcoatl, Quetzalcóatl - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11), Quetzalcóatl - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up). Indeed, nowhere in the traditions of the Aztec, or the Olmec, Toltec, Maya, or numerous other cultures for that matter, did the Plumed Serpent god disappear, promising one day to return. Despite the various roles and deeds ascribed to Quetzalcoatl in Aztec theology, he was not the most important god worshipped in Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec empire. Quetzalcoatl. Aztec round dance for Quetzalcóatl and Xolotl (a dog-headed god who is Quetzalcóatl's companion), detail from a facsimile Codex Borbonicus (folio 26), c. 1520; original in the Chamber of Deputies, Paris, France. HER FOOT RESTED ON THE CRESCENT MOON: She had clearly vanquished their foremost deity, the feather serpent "Quetzalcoatl." As the god of learning, of writing, and of books, Quetzalcóatl was particularly venerated in the calmecac, religious colleges annexed to the temples, in which the future priests and the sons of the nobility were educated. ... Quetzalcoatl, Tlaloc, Chalchiuhtlicue and Ehecatl. In the example from Yaxchilan, the Vision Serpent has the human face of the young maize god, further suggesting a connection to fertility and vegetational renewal; the Maya Young Maize god was also connected to Venus. In Xochicalco, depictions of the feathered serpent are accompanied by the image of a seated, armed ruler and the hieroglyph for the day sign 9 Wind. [34] Some Franciscans at this time held millennarian beliefs[35] and some of them believed that Cortés' coming to the New World ushered in the final era of evangelization before the coming of the millennium. The last sun was Nanauatl (Nanauatzin) or Tonatuih, and the warrior of the sun was Huitzilopochtli. The temple of Quetzalcóatl at Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital, was a round building, a shape that fitted the god’s personality as Ehécatl. With more than half a million absolutely free hentai doujinshi, manga, cosplay and CG galleries, E-Hentai Galleries is the world's largest free Hentai archive. 5D's, Beyblade: Metal Fusion, Fate/Grand Order - Absolute Demonic Front: Babylonia and Miss Kobayashi's Dragon Maid (the latter two depicting Quetzalcoatl as a female dragon deity); the Megami Tensei video game franchise; the video games Fate/Grand Order, Final Fantasy VIII, Final Fantasy XV, Sanitarium, Smite (as an alternate costume for his Mayan counterpart, Kukulkan), and Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine; as the main antagonist in the Star Trek: The Animated Series episode "How Sharper Than a Serpent's Tooth"; and in the last of The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel books. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. On the basis of the different symbolic systems used in portrayals of the feathered serpent deity in different cultures and periods, scholars have interpreted the religious and symbolic meaning of the feathered serpent deity in Mesoamerican cultures. Those bones he anointed with his own blood, giving birth to the men who inhabit the present universe. ", "Method and Skepticism (and Quetzalcoatl...)", "Quetzalcoatl, the Maya maize god and Jesus Christ", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quetzalcoatl&oldid=1012042416, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages, Wikipedia introduction cleanup from March 2021, Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from March 2021, All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify, Articles having same image on Wikidata and Wikipedia, Articles containing Classical Nahuatl-language text, Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from August 2019, Articles with unsourced statements from August 2019, Articles with unsourced statements from August 2013, Articles with unsourced statements from January 2012, Articles with incomplete citations from April 2020, Articles with Spanish-language sources (es), Articles with Nahuatl languages-collective sources (nah), Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers, Srpskohrvatski / ÑÑпÑкоÑ
ÑваÑÑки, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 14 March 2021, at 08:14. Much of the idea of Cortés being seen as a deity can be traced back to the Florentine Codex written down some 50 years after the conquest. Representations of a feathered snake occur as early as the Teotihuacán civilization (3rd to 8th century ce) on the central plateau. This confederacy engaged in almost seventy-five years of nearly continuous conflict with the Aztec Empire of the Triple Alliance until the arrival of Cortés. The Feathered Serpent was a prominent supernatural entity or deity, found in many Mesoamerican religions. At temples such as the aptly named "Quetzalcoatl temple" in the Ciudadela complex, feathered serpents figure prominently and alternate with a different kind of serpent head. (Image credit: Public domain. He was also the ninth of the 13 gods of the daytime hours. Come join us in chat! The story of the life of the Mexican divinity, Quetzalcoatl, closely resembles that of the Savior; so closely, indeed, that we can come to no other conclusion than that Quetzalcoatl and Christ are the same being. [9] In Mazatec legends the astrologer deity Tlahuizcalpanteuctli, who is also represented by Venus, bears a close relationship with Quetzalcoatl. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. The first century of the Toltec civilization was dominated by the Teotihuacán culture, with its inspired ideals of priestly rule and peaceful behaviour. Dionysus, also called Bacchus, in Greco-Roman religion, a nature god of fruitfulness and vegetation, especially known as a god of wine and ecstasy. The subsequent Toltec culture (9th through 12th centuries), centred at the city of Tula, emphasized war and human sacrifice linked with the worship of heavenly bodies. Quetzalcóatl’s defeat symbolized the downfall of the Classic theocracy. In early Greek art he was represented as a bearded man, but later he was portrayed as youthful and effeminate. The legend of the victory of Tezcatlipoca over the Feathered Serpent probably reflects historical fact. The Tlaxcalteca, along with other city-states across the Plain of Puebla, then supplied the auxiliary and logistical support for the conquests of Guatemala and West Mexico while Mixtec and Zapotec caciques (Colonial indigenous rulers) gained monopolies in the overland transport of Manila galleon trade through Mexico, and formed highly lucrative relationships with the Dominican order in the new Spanish imperial world economic system that explains so much of the enduring legacy of indigenous life-ways that characterize southern Mexico and explain the popularity of the Quetzalcoatl legends that continued through the colonial period to the present day. [12] In the Postclassic period (900â1519 AD), the worship of the feathered-serpent deity centred in the primary Mexican religious center of Cholula. A feathered serpent deity has been worshiped by many different ethnopolitical groups in Mesoamerican history. [8] In his form as the morning star, Venus, he is also depicted as a harpy eagle. quetzalcoatl (dragon maid) 1136; Artist; kunaboto 470; General; big breasts 483016; big penis 194765; blush 956321; breasts 1715613; clothed 185896; clothing 380782; duo 336737; heart 146782; mating press 8603; musclegut 8246; penetration 422748; pubic hair 149822; sex 822659; ugly bastard 230; ugly man 2280; vaginal penetration 426157 It is also suggested that he was a son of Xochiquetzal and Mixcoatl. Learn more about Dionysus in … Quetzalcoatl is not a religious symbol in the Latter-day Saint faith, and is not taught as such, nor is it in their doctrine that Quetzalcoatl is Jesus. He was a creator deity having contributed essentially to the creation of mankind. Quetzalcóatl became the god of the morning and evening star, and his temple was the centre of ceremonial life in Tula. Later on, Xavier and the Aztecs summon Quetzalcoatl in his mortal form and wind up angering him after cutting him open. Over the South presides the Blue Tezcatlipoca, Huitzilopochtli, the god of war. The Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl is not the large square that it is visible on satellite images (as outlined in fig. [40][41] The deity has been featured as a character in the manga and anime series Yu-Gi-Oh! Most Mesoamerican beliefs included cycles of suns. Here's another version of the story of Aztec religion, with a picture of a common image of Quetzalcoatl, on of the more important Aztec gods. However, a majority of Mesoamericanist scholars, such as Matthew Restall (2003, 2018[33]), James Lockhart (1994), Susan D. Gillespie (1989), Camilla Townsend (2003a, 2003b), Louise Burkhart, Michel Graulich and Michael E. Smith (2003), among others, consider the "Quetzalcoatl/Cortés myth" as one of many myths about the Spanish conquest which have risen in the early post-conquest period. Mexico's flagship airline Aeroméxico has a Boeing 787-9 Dreamliner painted in a special Quetzalcoatl livery. The feathered serpent was furthermore connected to the planet Venus because of this planet's importance as a sign of the beginning of the rainy season. [38] In a 1986 paper for Sunstone, he noted that during the Spanish Conquest, the Native Americans and the Catholic priests who sympathized with them felt pressure to link Native American beliefs with Christianity, thus making the Native Americans seem more human and less savage. …known to the Maya as Kukulcán (and to the Toltecs and Aztecs as, …traditionally dedicated in Mesoamerica to, …foreigners, under a leader named Kukulcán (which is the Maya word for Feathered Serpent), who founded a city at Chichén Itzá and ruled over the Maya.…. His ashes rose into the sky and then his heart followed, becoming the morning star (see Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli).[27]. By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica. Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent, one of the major deities of the ancient Mexican pantheon. (Restall 2001 p. 114)[full citation needed]. In this period the deity is known to have been named QuetzalcÅhuÄtl by his Nahua followers. Latter-day Saint author Brant Gardner, after investigating the link between Quetzalcoatl and Jesus, concluded that the association amounts to nothing more than folklore. Quetzelcoatl also appeared on (Season 3) of the Animal Planet mockumentary Lost Tapes in an episode entitled "Q the Serpent God". The band Clutch references Quetzalcoatl in their song Oregon. As the morning star, he was known by the title Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, meaning "lord of the star of the dawn". [33] This speech, which has been widely referred to, has been a factor in the widespread belief that Moctezuma was addressing Cortés as the returning god Quetzalcoatl. But the god of the night sky, Tezcatlipoca, expelled him from Tula by performing feats of black magic. This large square is a plaza known as the Ciudadela, and whilst the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl is located within the Ciudadela, it measures a diminutive 60m across its base. Test your knowledge. From natural rock boulders to modern tile, discover the top 60 best pool waterfall ideas. The existence of such worship can be seen through studies of the iconography of different Mesoamerican cultures, in which serpent motifs are frequent. While not usually feathered, classic Maya serpent iconography seems related to the belief in a sky-, Venus-, creator-, war- and fertility-related serpent deity. In Aztec times (14th through 16th centuries) Quetzalcóatl was revered as the patron of priests, the inventor of the calendar and of books, and the protector of goldsmiths and other craftsmen; he was also identified with the planet Venus. Although probably not exactly a depiction of the same feathered serpent deity worshipped in classic and post-classic periods, it shows the continuity of symbolism of feathered snakes in Mesoamerica from the formative period and on, for example in comparison to the Maya Vision Serpent shown below. [5] Quetzalcoatl was one of several important gods in the Aztec pantheon, along with the gods Tlaloc, Tezcatlipoca and Huitzilopochtli. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree.... Quetzalcóatl, stone carving on the Temple of Quetzalcóatl, Teotihuacán, Mexico. [22], According to another version of the myth, Quetzalcoatl is one of the four sons of Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl, the four Tezcatlipocas, each of whom presides over one of the four cardinal directions. Cholula is known to have remained the most important center of worship to Quetzalcoatl, the Aztec/Nahua version of the feathered serpent deity, in the post-classic period. The legend of Quetzalcoatl is spoofed in the Adult Swim CGI series Xavier: Renegade Angel. In the episode "Damnesia You," Xavier winds up in the Aztec world and is immediately (and unsuccessfully) sacrificed for insulting the Sun God, and during the sacrifice the Aztecs humorously fail to pronounce his name. [13] Furthermore, early Spanish sources written by clerics tend to identify the god-ruler Quetzalcoatl of these narratives with either Hernán Cortés or Thomas the Apostleâidentifications which have also become sources of a diversity of opinions about the nature of Quetzalcoatl.[14]. With the immigration of Nahua-speaking tribes from the north, Quetzalcóatl’s cult underwent drastic changes. In Aztec culture, depictions of Quetzalcoatl were fully anthropomorphic. Interestingly, it was believed that Quetzalcoatl introduced cocoa beans to humans. There are several stories about the birth of Quetzalcoatl. At that time he seems to have been conceived as a vegetation god. He was also the patron god of the Aztec priesthood, of learning and knowledge. Over time, Quetzalcoatl's appearance, clothing, malevolent nature, and status among the gods were reshaped to fit a more Christian framework. In the Aztec ritual calendar, different deities were associated with the cycle-of-year names: Quetzalcoatl was tied to the year Ce Acatl (One Reed), which correlates to the year 1519. Auh yn jquac molhuja eheca, mjtoa: teuhtli quaqualaca, ycoioca, tetecujca, tlatlaiooa, tlatlapitza, tlatlatzinj, motlatlaueltia.